We have been developing an X-ray imaging system, multi-image X-ray interferometer module (MIXIM), to achieve a high angular resolution with a compact system size. MIXIM is comprised of a mask with equally spaced apertures and an X-ray detector. The aperture size and the mask-detector distance determine the system’s angular resolution. Although a smaller aperture gives a better resolution, the degree of improvement is limited by a diffraction effect. MIXIM circumvents this problem by utilizing the Talbot effect. Our experiment with the previous model equipped with a multi-pinhole mask obtained an angular resolution of 0.5″ with a mask-detector distance of 92 cm. A major downside of the multi-pinhole mask is, however, that it has a very low opening fraction, which results in a very low effective area. Here, we newly adopt a multiple coded aperture (MCA) mask, an array of coded aperture patterns. Our proof-of-concept experiment demonstrates that the Talbot effect works even for the MCA mask with a high opening fraction of ∼50% at 12.4 keV. Consequently, the new MIXIM realizes ∼25 times as large an effective area as that of the previous model while maintaining a high angular resolution of 0.2″ and a compact size of ∼1.5 m.
The Soft X-ray Imager (SXI) is an X-ray CCD camera of the Xtend system onboard the X-Ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Mission (XRISM), which was successfully launched on September 7, 2023 (JST). During ground cooling tests of the CCDs in 2020/2021, using the flight-model detector housing, electronic boards, and a mechanical cooler, we encountered an unexpected issue. Anomalous charges appeared outside the imaging area of the CCDs and intruded into the imaging area, causing pulse heights to stick to the maximum value over a wide region. Although this issue has not occurred in subsequent tests or in orbit so far, it could seriously affect the imaging and spectroscopic performance of the SXI if it were to happen in the future. Through experiments with non-flight-model detector components, we successfully reproduced the issue and identified that the anomalous charges intrude via the potential structure created by the charge injection electrode at the top of the imaging area. To prevent anomalous charge intrusion and maintain spectroscopic performance that satisfies the requirements, even if this issue occurs in orbit, we developed a new CCD driving technique. This technique is different from the normal operation in terms of potential structure and its changes during imaging and charge injection. In this paper, we report an overview of the anomalous charge issue, the related potential structures, the development of the new CCD driving technique to prevent the issue, the imaging and spectroscopic performance of the new technique, and the results of investigation experiments to identify the source of the anomalous charges.
Xtend is one of the two telescopes onboard the X-ray imaging and spectroscopy mission (XRISM), which was launched on September 7th, 2023. Xtend comprises the Soft X-ray Imager (SXI), an X-ray CCD camera, and the X-ray Mirror Assembly (XMA), a thin-foil-nested conically approximated Wolter-I optics. A large field of view of 38′ × 38′ over the energy range from 0.4 to 13 keV is realized by the combination of the SXI and XMA with a focal length of 5.6 m. The SXI employs four P-channel, back-illuminated type CCDs with a thick depletion layer of 200 μm. The four CCD chips are arranged in a 2×2 grid and cooled down to −110°C with a single-stage Stirling cooler. Before the launch of XRISM, we conducted a month-long spacecraft thermal vacuum test. The performance verification of the SXI was successfully carried out in a course of multiple thermal cycles of the spacecraft. About a month after the launch of XRISM, the SXI was carefully activated and the soundness of its functionality was checked by a step-by-step process. Commissioning observations followed the initial operation. We here present pre- and post-launch results verifying the Xtend performance. All the in-orbit performances are consistent with those measured on ground and satisfy the mission requirement. Extensive calibration studies are ongoing.
We propose an x-ray imaging system, multi-image x-ray interferometer module (MIXIM), with which a very high angular resolution can be achieved even with a small system size. MIXIM is composed of equally spaced multiple slits and an x-ray detector, and its angular resolution is inversely proportional to the distance between them. Here, we report our evaluation experiments of MIXIM with a newly adopted CMOS sensor with a high spatial resolution of 2.5 μm. Our previous experiments with a prototype MIXIM were limited to one-dimensional imaging, and more importantly, the achieved angular resolution was only ∼1 ″ , severely constrained due to the spatial resolution of the adopted sensor with a pixel size of 4.25 μm. By contrast, one-dimensional images obtained in this experiment had a higher angular resolution of 0.5″ when a configured system size was only ∼1 m, which demonstrates that MIXIM can simultaneously realize a high angular resolution and compact size. We also successfully obtained a two-dimensional profile of an x-ray beam for the first time for MIXIM by introducing a periodic pinhole mask. The highest angular resolution achieved in our experiments is smaller than 0.1″ with a mask-sensor distance of 866.5 cm, which shows the high scalability of MIXIM.
We have developed a novel x-ray interferometer, multi-image x-ray interferometer module (MIXIM), comprised of a fine aperture mask and an x-ray detector. The angular resolution of this system can be improved with an increase of the distance between two components or a decrease of the aperture size. Although MIXIM has already achieved an angular resolution of less than 0.1” by applying the Talbot effect with a periodic multi-pinhole mask, there remains the issue that its low opening fraction of 1.3% decreases the effective area of the imaging system. Therefore, we newly introduced periodic coded aperture masks which have opening fractions of about 50% instead of the multi-pinhole mask. Conducting an experiment with a 12.4 keV parallel x-ray beam, we successfully demonstrated that the periodic coded aperture could form the self-image, and obtained the x-ray source profile with sub-arcsecond angular resolution by deciphering the coded pattern. The effective area increases about 25 times compared with the multi-pinhole mask by the introduction of the periodic coded aperture masks, which indicates that this novel method can be effective for addressing the problem.
Xtend is a soft x-ray imaging telescope developed for the x-ray imaging and spectroscopy mission (XRISM). XRISM is scheduled to be launched in the Japanese fiscal year 2022. Xtend consists of the soft x-ray imager (SXI), an x-ray CCD camera, and the x-ray mirror assembly (XMA), a thin-foil-nested conically approximated Wolter-I optics. The SXI uses the P-channel, back-illuminated type CCD with an imaging area size of 31mm on a side. The four CCD chips are arranged in a 2×2 grid and can be cooled down to −120 °C with a single-stage Stirling cooler. The XMA nests thin aluminum foils coated with gold in a confocal way with an outer diameter of 45 cm. A pre-collimator is installed in front of the x-ray mirror for the reduction of the stray light. Combining the SXI and XMA with a focal length of 5.6m, a field of view of 38′ × 38′ over the energy range from 0.4 to 13 keV is realized. We have completed the fabrication of the flight model of both SXI and XMA. The performance verification has been successfully conducted in a series of sub-system level tests. We also carried out on-ground calibration measurements and the data analysis is ongoing.
Athena, a future high-energy mission, is expected to consist of a large aperture x-ray mirror with a focal length of 12 m. The mirror surface is to be coated with iridium and a low Z overcoat. To define the effective area of the x-ray telescope, the atomic scattering factors of iridium with an energy resolution less than that (2.5 eV) of the x-ray integral field unit are needed. We measured the reflectance of the silicon pore optics mirror plate coated with iridium in the energy range of 9 to 15 keV and that near the iridium L-edges in steps of 10 and 1.5 eV, respectively, at the synchrotron beamline SPring-8. The L3, L2, and L1 edges were clearly detected around 11,215, 12,824, and 13,428 eV, respectively. The measured scattering factors were ∼3 % smaller than the corresponding values reported by Henke et al., likely due to the presence of an overlayer on the iridium coating, and were consistent with those measured by Graessle et al. The angular dependence of the reflectivity measured indicates that the iridium surface was extremely smooth, with a surface roughness of 0.3 nm.
We intoduce our novel method of super high resolution astronomical X-ray imaging, Multi Image X-ray Interferometer Method, Modules, Missions (MIXIM). In series of experiments on the ground we not only verified the concept of MIXIM but also realized 2D imaging with angular resolution better than 0. ′′1. Employment of small pixel size CMOS sensor was the key to this achievement. Scalability is also an important feature of MIXIM., and various mission format is available. We show some examples from a very small satellite for sub arcsecond resolution to a formation flight with a millions km separation to gain µas resolution. MIXIM is different from X-ray mirrors in various points, for example, it does not have a collecting power. Considering the limitations and advantages of MIXIM, we should choose bright apparently point-like sources as targets. Nearby AGNs are primary ones, and the MIXIM scope just corresponds to spatial scales which have not yet resolved in X-rays.
CFRP is a composite material composed of carbon fiber and resin. CFRP is commonly applied to the aerospace industry which requires lightweight and intensity. Thanks to superior formability of CFRP, we can form shape of Wolter-1 optics, which consists of paraboloid and hyperboloid, to a monolithic substrate. Since the surface roughness of a CFRP substrate is a few µm, we have to make the smooth surface for reflecting X-rays on the CFRP substrate. We have developed a new method of shaping the reflective surface instead of the replica method used in lightweight X-ray mirrors such as Astro-H. In the new method, the reflective surface is formed by pasting thin sheet-glasses with 100 µm thick onto the CFRP substrate. The thin sheet-glass has a surface roughness about 0.4 nm as measured by Zygo. We fabricated a CFRP mirror pasting thin sheet-glasses, and then coated tungsten on the mirror in June 2020. The figure error (s) of the CFRP mirror was achieved to be about 1-2 μm by stacking the CFRP mirror on the housing module. X-ray imaging quality of the CFRP mirror was measured at Spring-8 in July 2020. The half-power diameter of the CFRP mirror was estimated to be about 150 arcsec, which was nearly equal to the prediction from a distribution of the slope error deduced from the surface profile. We describe a future plan to improve the image quality of the CFRP mirror.
We report current status of developing Soft X-ray Imager (SXI), the X-ray CCD camera onboard X-Ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Mission (XRISM). Four flight model (FM) CCDs have been selected considering several items including energy resolution at 5.9keV, CTI, dark current, etc. We have also completed calibration campaign for all the FM CCDs. Initial analyses show that the response function for monochromatic X-rays is basically the same as that of Hitomi CCDs. The focal plane including the single-stage Stirling cooler has been assembled. Production of key parts in SXI sensor body such as contamination blocking filter and onboard calibration source has been finished and they are waiting for assemble. The digitized signals of the CCD are corrected step by step before conversion to X-ray energy. We are preparing calibration database for the correction such as CTI, gain, and line redistribution function.
X-Ray Imaging and Spectroscopy Mission (XRISM) is the seventh Japanese X-ray astronomical satellite scheduled to be launched in the Japanese fiscal year 2022. XRISM has two mission instruments, “Resolve”, a soft X-ray spectrometer, and “Xtend”, a soft X-ray imager. The Former is an X-ray micro-calorimeter that has ∼ 5 eV of energy resolution with 3′ × 3 ′ of field of view. The Latter is an X-ray CCD camera with 38′ × 38′ of field of view. Both instruments are placed on the focal plane of X-ray telescopes, X-ray Mirror Assembly (XMA). Xtend CCDs are designed almost the same as those of Hitomi (ASTRO-H), whereas some improvements have been applied. In 2019, flight-model (FM) candidates of Xtend CCDs were fabricated by Hamamatsu Photonics K.K. We performed screening experiments to examine whether they met requirements or not, and then selected the best four chips as the FM. We then performed on-ground calibration on August 2019 and September 2019 for the FM chips to determine the gain correction parameters and to construct the detector response with several energies of monochromatic X-ray. In this paper, we report screening, selection, and on-ground calibration processes, especially focusing on the response verification.
We have proposed a new style X-ray interferometer, Multi-Image X-ray Interferometer Module (MIXIM), to achieve high angular resolution. MIXIM is comprised of a grating and an X-ray detector, and its angular resolution is in inverse proportion to the distance between two components. Although we have already detected a 1D interference fringe which corresponds an angular resolution of about 1” in our past experiment, its amplitude is not so high partly because of the lack of the spatial resolution of the X-ray detector. Then we newly adopt a CMOS detector which has both high spatial resolution (< 2.5 μm) and high spectroscopic capability (FWHM∼ 170 eV @5.9 keV) and evaluate the performance of MIXIM at BL20B2 in SPring-8, the synchrotron radiation facility in Japan. 1D interference fringes in this experiment have much higher amplitudes than those in the past experiment, which demonstrates the improvement of the performance due to the new CMOS detector. We also introduce a 2D grating for the first time, and try to obtain the 2D profile of the X-ray beam of which the size is 0.28” (H) and 0.06” (V). Extending the distance between two components to 866.5 cm, 2D imaging by MIXIM succeeds in capturing the horizontally elongated beam structure. The angular resolution at this configuration is calculated to be 0.076”, which is the highest ever achieved for astronomical X-ray imagers.
X-ray polarimetry in astronomy has not been exploited well, despite its importance. The recent innovation of instruments is changing this situation. We focus on a complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) pixel detector with small pixel size and employ it as an x-ray photoelectron tracking polarimeter. The CMOS detector we employ is developed by GPixel Inc. and has a pixel size of 2.5 μm × 2.5 μm. Although it is designed for visible light, we succeed in detecting x-ray photons with an energy resolution of 176 eV (FWHM) at 5.9 keV at room temperature and the atmospheric condition. We measure the x-ray detection efficiency and polarimetry sensitivity by irradiating polarized monochromatic x-rays at BL20B2 in SPring-8, the synchrotron radiation facility in Japan. We obtain modulation factors of 7.63 % ± 0.07 % and 15.5 % ± 0.4 % at 12.4 and 24.8 keV, respectively. It demonstrates that this sensor can be used as an x-ray imaging spectrometer and polarimeter with the highest spatial resolution ever tested.
We have proposed a new type of X-ray interferometer called Multi Image X-ray Interferometer Module (MIXIM) consisting simply of a grating and an X-ray spectral imaging detector. The baseline concept of MIXIM is a slit camera to obtain the profile of X-ray sources, but aim to get a sub-arcsecond resolution. For that purpose, to avoid blurring of the image by diffraction is a key, and we select X-ray events of which energy satisfies the interferometric condition called Talbot effect. Stacking the images (X-ray interferometric fringes) with the period of the grating is another point of the method, which provides the self image of a grating slit convolved with the profile of the X-ray source. We started an experiment with a micro focus X-ray source, 4.8 μm pitch grating, and an SOI type X-ray detector XRPIX2b with a pixel size of 30 μm. The stacked self image was obtained with a magnification factor of 4.4. We, however, need finer positional resolution for the detector to obtain the self image to a parallel beam, for which the magnification factor must be 1. We thus focused on small pixel size CMOS sensors developed for visible light. We irradiated X-rays to one of such CMOS sensors GSENSE5130 with a pixel size of 4.25 μm, and found enough capability to detect X-rays, i.e., FWHM of 207 eV at 5.9 keV at room temperature. We then employed this sensor and performed an experiment at a 200 m beam line of BL20B2 in the synchrotron facility SPring8. Using a grating with a pitch of 4.8 µm and an opening fraction of f=0.5, we obtained the self image of the grating at the detector distance from the grating of 23 cm and 46 cm and the X-ray energy of 12.4 keV. We also performed an experiment using a 9.6 μm f = 0.2 grating with a detector-grating distance of 92 cm, and obtained higher contrast image of the grating. Note that the slit width of 2.4 μm at 46 cm corresponds to 1.1′′, while that of 1.9 μm at 92 cm does 0.43′′. We suggest several format of possible MIXIM missions, including MIXIM-S for very small satellite of 50cm size, MIXIM-P for parasite use of nominal X-ray observatory employing grazing X-ray telescopes with a focal length of 10 m, and MIXIM-Z in which the grating-detector distance of 100 m is acquired by formation flight or free fryers to yield 0.01” level resolution.
X-ray Astronomy Recovery Mission (XARM) scheduled to be launched in early 2020’s carries two soft X-ray telescopes. One is Resolve consisting of a soft X-ray mirror and a micro calorimeter array, and the other is Soft X-ray Imaging Telescope (Xtend), a combination of an X-ray mirror assembly (XMA) and an X-ray CCD camera (SXI). Xtend covers a field of view (FOV) of 38′ × 38′ , much larger than that of Resolve (3′ × 3 ′ ) with moderate energy resolution in the energy band from 0.4 keV to 13 keV, which is similar to that of Resolve (from 0.3 keV to 12 keV). Simultaneous observations of both telescopes provide complimentary data of X-ray sources in their FOV. In particular, monitoring X-ray sources outside the Resolve FOV but inside the Xtend FOV is important to enhance the reliability of super high resolution spectra obtained with Resolve. Xtend is also expected to be one of the best instruments for low surface brightness X-ray emissions with its low non X-ray background level, which is comparable to that of Suzaku XIS. The design of Xtend is almost identical to those of Soft X-ray Telescope (SXT) and Soft X-ray Imager (SXI) both on board the Hitomi satellite. However, several mandatory updates are included. Updates for the CCD chips are verified with experiment using test CCD chips before finalizing the design of the flight model CCD. Fabrication of the foils for XMA has started, and flight model production of the SXI is almost ready.
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