CIS221-X is a prototype monolithic complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) image sensor, optimized for soft X-ray astronomy and developed for the proposed European Space Agency Transient High Energy Sky and Early Universe Surveyor (THESEUS) mission. One significant advantage of CMOS technology is its resistance to radiation damage. To assess this resistance, three backside-illuminated CIS221-X detectors have been irradiated with 10 MeV protons using the MC40 Cyclotron Facility at the University of Birmingham, United Kingdom. Each detector received 1/2, 1, and 2 THESEUS end-of-life proton fluences (6.65×108 p+/cm2). One had already been exposed to ionizing radiation [up to 59.04 krad total ionizing dose (TID)] during a previous radiation campaign. Using unirradiated readout electronics, the electro-optical performance of each device has been measured before and after proton irradiation. No significant change was observed in the readout noise and image lag. An increase in mean dark current was recorded, as was an increase in the number of hot pixels. The degradation of CIS221-X performance due to non-ionizing radiation effects is similar to that of comparable CMOS image sensors and has been attributed to an increase in the number of bulk silicon defects.
CIS221-X is a prototype monolithic CMOS image sensor, optimised for soft x-ray astronomy and developed for the proposed European Space Agency THESEUS mission. One significant advantage of CMOS technology is its resistance to radiation damage. To assess this resistance, three backside-illuminated CIS221-X detectors have been irradiated with 10MeV protons using the MC40 cyclotron facility at the University of Birmingham, UK. Each detector received ½, 1 and 2 THESEUS end-of-life proton fluences (6.65 × 108 p+/cm2). One had already been exposed to ionising radiation (up to 59.04krad TID) during a previous radiation campaign. Using unirradiated readout electronics, the electro-optical performance of each device has been measured before and after proton irradiation. No significant change was observed in the readout noise and image lag. An increase in mean dark current was recorded, as was an increase in the number of hot pixels. The degradation of CIS221-X performance due to non-ionising radiation effects is similar to that of comparable CMOS image sensors.
X-ray interferometry (XRI) was first demonstrated in the early 2000’s, and many early mission concepts followed which exploited the significant improvement in spatial resolution that XRI offered. Unfortunately, optical technology was not mature enough to meet the requirements, and the idea remained dormant. ESA’s voyage 2050 programme, in combination with optical and pointing accuracy technology developments, has reignited interest in the concept, but large technological challenges still remain to realise such a groundbreaking telescope. Given the spectral and now spatial requirements of a XRI, the next generation of detector technologies must be developed which can meet those requirements to enable such a telescope. For the proposed ESA THESEUS x-ray astronomy mission, strict requirements on instrument operating temperature (-40°C) have necessitated developments of new detectors technologies, namely CMOS image sensors (CIS). The CEI, in collaboration with Te2v, have designed, manufactured, and characterised a monolithic fully depleted CIS specifically optimised for soft x-ray astronomy. The prototype detector currently meets the THESEUS soft x-ray imager requirements and boasts a near Fano-limited energy resolution of 130eV (@5.9keV) at -40°C. Although the new technology can perform well, the specific detector requirements of XRI need to balance opposing parameters of spatial and energy resolution. This paper will outline the current performance of the CIS221-X for soft x-ray astronomy (as well as other competing technologies) and describe future plans for developing CIS to meet the challenging requirements of XRI.
With CMOS sensors starting to be utilised in astronomical telescopes, new uses for them are being explored. One such use is the possibility of observing distant, dim objects, which requires long integration times, and therefore low dark current. This work focuses on the dark current characterisation of the CIS220, a sensor made by Teledyne e2v for future space missions, at very long integration times at a range of temperatures, from +20 to –60 °C, before and after proton and gamma irradiation.
The Auroral x-ray Imaging Spectrometer (AXIS) instrument proposed by the Indian Space Research Organisation’s (ISRO) Space Astronomy Group plans to gather spectral information of the Earth’s aurorae in the 0.3 to 3keV band from a low Earth polar orbit for the first time. A trade-off study comparing possible Teledyne e2v (Te2v) detectors to meet preliminary instrument requirements previously concluded that the backside-illuminated (BI) CIS221-X, a prototype CMOS image sensor (CIS) optimised for soft x-ray detection, was a viable option. This paper introduces the current preliminary instrument requirements for AXIS and the compact Nuscis camera electronics from XCAM Ltd that will be used with the CIS221-X to produce an engineering model of the instrument. Continued studies on the CIS221-X for AXIS will include the optimisation of operating conditions in particular for the less well-studied pixel variants of the detector, and calibration with soft x-rays.
KEYWORDS: Charge-coupled devices, X-rays, Temperature metrology, X-ray imaging, Solar processes, Silicon, X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, Solar energy, Signal detection, Sensors
The SMILE mission, a collaborative effort between the European Space Agency and the Chinese Academy of Sciences, seeks to enhance our comprehension of the interplay between solar phenomena and the Earth's magnetosphere-ionosphere system on a global scale. Among its instrumental arsenal is the Soft X-ray Imager (SXI), designed to capture photons generated within the 200eV to 2000eV energy spectrum through the solar wind charge exchange process. This imaging tool employs two large CCD370s, each with 4510 x 4510 18μm pitch pixels, as its focal plane. SMILE will orbit Earth in an elliptical trajectory, traversing the radiation belts approximately every 52 hours. Over the course of its anticipated 3-year mission, the CCDs onboard will endure progressive deterioration from the persistent presence of trapped and solar protons. To gauge the extent of this damage and its effect on the devices' functionality, a sequence of proton radiation campaigns is underway. The final cryogenic irradiation campaign has now been completed using a fully functioning engineering model of the SXI CCD370s that will be used in flight and irradiating up to the expected end of life total non-ionising dose. The results show that the measured parallel charge transfer inefficiency (pCTI) varies with temperature both before and after irradiation, however the trend changes from decreasing with temperature to increasing. This is thought to be due to a change in the dominant effective trap species. The impact of multiple charge injection lines and 6x6 binned frame transfer is also assessed and shows that between -130 to -100°C the pCTI, when both measures are utilized, is independent of temperature. This suggests potential for more flexible thermal controls in future missions that use similar devices.
In this work, we investigate a mechanism of dark current generation under the transfer gate (TRA) in pinned photodiode (PPD) image sensors for science and space applications. It was established that the dark current could change by an order of magnitude depending on the biasing conditions of the TRA and the sense node during integration. This was observed in three sensors with different pixel sizes, made by two different foundries. The results from the characterization work to investigate the source of the dark current are presented. It was discovered that the effect strongly depends on the interplay between the timing and the biasing of the transfer gate and the sense node during reset. Two methods for the reduction of this dark current are proposed and evaluated. The results could help to find the optimal operating conditions of PPD image sensors used in applications where the dark current performance is paramount.
Space observatories utilizing micro pore optics (MPOs) have been used and are planned for several future X-ray astronomy space missions. The optical systems are designed to facilitate the focusing of incoming photons onto the focal plane of telescopes. Unfortunately, as well as having a small solid angle “open” to the sky, MPOs also have the unintentional effect of focusing high-energy particles from the space radiation environment. This causes additional radiation damage to mission-critical imaging sensors with solar energetic particles being particularly focusable. Typically, processes such as sectoral analysis are used to estimate the predicted dose to components, which is a ray tracing approach, and does not include focusing effects. We investigated focused dose estimation techniques for MPOs using Monte Carlo (MC) simulations. The focused dose contribution was compared with the unfocused contribution for the Solar wind Magnetosphere Ionosphere Link Explorer mission. The unfocused dose estimates were calculated using a traditional sectoral shielding analysis. The Monte Carlo-focused dose simulations enabled dose mapping over the image sensor to be analyzed. This revealed a relatively uniform dose across the device with some focusing artifacts present. The simulations also showed that the total ionizing dose and total non-ionizing dose decreased with depth into the sensor from the entrance window. This is key when considering that charge is often stored at varying depths in imaging devices across different technologies, for example, in front or back illuminated devices.
CIS221-X is a prototype complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) image sensor, optimized for soft x-ray astronomy and developed for the proposed ESA Transient High Energy Sky and Early Universe Surveyor (THESEUS) mission. The sensor features 40 μm pitch square pixels built on a 35 μm thick, high-resistivity epitaxial silicon that is fully depleted by reverse substrate bias. Backside illumination processing has been used to achieve high x-ray quantum efficiency, and an optical light-blocking filter has been applied to mitigate the influence of stray light. A comprehensive electro-optical characterization of CIS221-X has been completed. The median readout noise is 3.3 e − RMS with 90% of pixels reporting a value <3.6 e − RMS. At −40 ° C, the dark current is 12.4 ± 0.06 e − / pixel / s. The pixel photo-response is linear to within 1% for 0.3 to 5 keV photons (82 to 1370 e − ) with <0.1 % image lag. Following per-pixel gain correction, an energy resolution of 130.2 ± 0.4 eV has been measured at 5898 eV. In the 0.3 to 1.8 keV energy range, CIS221-X achieves >80 % quantum efficiency. With the exception of dark current, these results either meet or outperform the requirements for the THESEUS mission, strongly supporting the consideration of CMOS technology for soft x-ray astronomy.
CIS221-X is the first in a new generation of monolithic CMOS image sensors optimized for soft x-ray applications. The pixels are built on 35 μm thick, high-resistivity epitaxial silicon and feature Deep Depletion Extension (DDE) implants, facilitating over depletion by reverse substrate bias. When cooled to -40 °C, CIS221-X reports a readout noise of 3.3 e- RMS and 12.4 ± 0.06 e-/pixel/s of dark current. The 40μm pixels experience near-zero image lag. Following per-pixel gain correction, an energy resolution of 130 ± 0.4 eV FWHM has been measured at 5.9 keV. In the 0.3 – 1.8 keV energy range, the sensor achieves a quantum efficiency of above 80%. Radiation tests have shown that both the readout noise and dark current increase with total ionising dose and that the OBF can help to mitigate the increase in dark current. The measured electro-optical parameters and the preliminary ionising radiation results strongly support the use of the CIS221-X in soft x-ray applications.
A monolithic CMOS image sensor based on the pinned photodiode (PPD) and optimized for X-ray imaging in the 300 eV to 5 keV energy range is described. Featuring 40 μm square pixels and 40 μm thick, high resistivity epitaxial silicon, the sensor is fully depleted by reverse substrate bias. Backside illumination (BSI) processing has been used to achieve high X-ray QE, and a dedicated pixel design has been developed for low image lag and high conversion gain. The sensor, called CIS221-X, is manufactured in a 180 nm CMOS process and has three different 512×128-pixel arrays on 40 μm pitch, as well as a 2048×512 array of 10 μm pixels. CIS221-X also features per-column 12-bit ADCs, digital readout via four highspeed LVDS outputs, and can be read out at 45 frames per second. CIS221-X achieves readout noise of 2.6 e- RMS and full width at half maximum (FWHM) at the Mn-Kα 5.9 keV characteristic X-ray line of 153 eV at -40 °C. This paper presents the characterization results of the first backside illuminated CIS221-X, including X-ray response and readout noise. The newly developed sensor and the technology underpinning it is intended for diverse applications, including Xray astronomy, synchrotron, and X-ray free electron laser light sources.
Charge-coupled devices have been the detector of choice for soft X-ray astronomy missions for many decades due to excellent energy resolution, noise performance, and longevity in space. Newer CCD-based missions require everincreasing performance which is made challenging by radiation damage inherent to the space environment. Missions such as ESA’s upcoming EUCLID observatory is aiming to measure tiny changes in the shape of distant galaxies, created by the presence of dark matter. Such high precision (not only specific to EUCLID) necessitates significant mitigation against radiation damage effects, one of which is utilising different detector operation modes such as multilevel clocking. Multi-level clocking uses three electrode voltage levels (compared to the standard two) to encourage traps within the damaged silicon to emit their charge such that they do not contribute to charge transfer losses, improving charge transfer efficiency and overall detector performance. However, multi-level clocking requires bespoke hardware to implement, followed by significant amount of testing to show that the benefit is significant.
A recent CCD optimisation technique, called the Active Trap Model, utilises knowledge of the radiation-induced defects within a CCD to optimise charge transfer performance across a wide range of variables including temperature, clocking speeds and device operation modes. This paper presents development of the Active Trap Model to predict the performance of multi-level clocking in CCDs. The performance of the model is compared to the experimental data available, namely from ESA’s PLATO1 mission, and shows good agreement between model and experimental data. The results show the versatility of the Active Trap Model and uses of the technique in potential future CCD-based space missions such as HabEx2 and LUVIOR3.
Charge-coupled devices (CCDs) have been the detector of choice for large-scale space missions for many years. Although dominant in this field, the charge transfer performance of the technology degrades over time due to the radiation-harsh space environment. Charge transfer performance can be optimized; however, it is often time consuming and expensive due to the many operating modes of the CCD, especially considering the ever-increasing needs of detector performance. A technique that uses measurements of the trap landscape present in a CCD to predict changes in charge transfer inefficiency as a function of different experimental variables is presented and developed. Using this technique, it is possible to focus experimental lab testing on key device parameters, potentially saving many months of laboratory effort. Due to the generality of the method, it can be used to optimize the charge transfer performance of any CCD and, as such, has many uses across a wide range of fields and space missions. Future CCD variants that will be used in potential space missions (EMCCD and p-channel CCDs) can use this technique to provide feedback of the key device performance to the wider mission consortium before devices are available for experimental testing.
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